CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE RISE OF INFORMALITY IN RURAL LABOUR MARKETS: A CROSS-COUNTRY STUDY OF NEPAL, BANGLADESH, AND INDONESIA
;
climate change, informal employment, rural labour, Asia-Pacific, labour insecurity, Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia, sustainable development.Abstrak
This paper investigates the link between climate-induced disruptions and the expansion of informal labour in rural areas across Nepal, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. Using case-study methodology and comparative policy analysis, the research highlights how climate vulnerability exacerbates labour market insecurities and pushes rural workers—especially in agriculture and low-skill sectors—into informal and unstable employment. The findings aim to support the design of integrated labour-climate strategies that promote resilience, formalisation, and sustainable development in Asia-Pacific economies.
Iqtiboslar
Adams, H., & Upreti, B. R. (2020). Migration, informality and climate change in South Asia. Journal of South Asian Development, 15(2), 180–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973174120928483
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2021). Indonesia: Climate risk country profile. https://www.adb.org/publications/climate-risk-country-profile-indonesia
Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS). (2021). Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2021. https://www.bps.go.id
Bappenas. (2020). Indonesia’s low carbon development initiative: A pathway to sustainable development. Ministry of National Development Planning. https://lcdi-indonesia.id
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS Nepal). (2021). Nepal labour force survey 2020–2021. https://cbs.gov.np
Chen, M. A. (2012). The informal economy: Definitions, theories and policies. WIEGO Working Paper No. 1. https://www.wiego.org/publications/informal-economy-definitions-theories-and-policies
Eckstein, D., Künzel, V., & Schäfer, L. (2021). Global climate risk index 2021: Who suffers most from extreme weather events? Germanwatch. https://germanwatch.org/en/cri
Fields, G. S. (2019). Employment in low-income countries: Beyond informality. IZA Journal of Labor Policy, 8(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.2478/izajolp-2019-0002
Gurung, M. (2021). Climate change and labour migration from the Nepalese highlands. Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies, 41(2), Article 8. https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol41/iss2/8
Hallegatte, S., Rentschler, J., & Rozenberg, J. (2016). Shock waves: Managing the impacts of climate change on poverty. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0673-5
Huq, S., & Rabbani, G. (2011). Climate change and Bangladesh: Policy and institutional development to reduce vulnerability. Journal of Bangladesh Studies, 13(1), 1–10.
Huq, S., Reid, H., & Murray, L. A. (2015). Gender and climate change: Women as agents of change. In B. Denton (Ed.), Climate change and human development (pp. 89–106). Zed Books.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2018). Women and men in the informal economy: A statistical picture (3rd ed.). Geneva: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_626831/lang--en/index.htm
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2019). Working on a warmer planet: The impact of heat stress on labour productivity and decent work. Geneva: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_711919/lang--en/index.htm
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2022). ILOSTAT database: Informality and labour market indicators. https://ilostat.ilo.org
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2022). Decent work for a sustainable future: Flagship report. Geneva: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_844740/lang--en/index.htm
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2021). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Meagher, K. (2013). Unlocking the informal economy: A literature review on linkages between formal and informal economies in developing countries. WIEGO Working Paper No. 27. https://www.wiego.org/publications/unlocking-informal-economy-literature-review
Ministry of Forests and Environment (MOFE), Nepal. (2022). National climate change policy. Government of Nepal. https://mofe.gov.np
Neelormi, S., Ahmed, A. U., & Rauf, A. (2019). Climate change, migration and informal labour markets in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy, 35(2), 15–37.
ReliefWeb. (2020). Bangladesh monsoon floods – Situation report No. 5. https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/bangladesh-monsoon-floods-situation-report-no5-24-august-2020
